Manuel Velasquez, Claire Andre, Thomas Shanks, S.J., and Michael J. Meyer
Cultures differ widely in their moral practices. As anthropologist Ruth Benedict illustrates in Patterns of Culture, diversity is evident even on those matters of morality where we would expect to agree:
Other anthropologists point to a range of practices considered morally acceptable in some societies but condemned in others, including infanticide, genocide, polygamy, racism, sexism, and torture. Such differences may lead us to question whether there are any universal moral principles or whether morality is merely a matter of "cultural taste." Differences in moral practices across cultures raise an important issue in ethics -- the concept of "ethical relativism."
Ethical relativism is the theory that holds that morality is relative to the norms of one's culture. That is, whether an action is right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the society in which it is practiced. The same action may be morally right in one society but be morally wrong in another. For the ethical relativist, there are no universal moral standards -- standards that can be universally applied to all peoples at all times. The only moral standards against which a society's practices can be judged are its own. If ethical relativism is correct, there can be no common framework for resolving moral disputes or for reaching agreement on ethical matters among members of different societies.
Most ethicists reject the theory of ethical relativism. Some claim that while the moral practices of societies may differ, the fundamental moral principles underlying these practices do not. For example, in some societies, killing one's parents after they reached a certain age was common practice, stemming from the belief that people were better off in the afterlife if they entered it while still physically active and vigorous. While such a practice would be condemned in our society, we would agree with these societies on the underlying moral principle -- the duty to care for parents. Societies, then, may differ in their application of fundamental moral principles but agree on the principles.
Also, it is argued, it may be the case that some moral beliefs are culturally relative whereas others are not. Certain practices, such as customs regarding dress and decency, may depend on local custom whereas other practices, such as slavery, torture, or political repression, may be governed by universal moral standards and judged wrong despite the many other differences that exist among cultures. Simply because some practices are relative does not mean that all practices are relative.
Other philosophers criticize ethical relativism because of its implications for individual moral beliefs. These philosophers assert that if the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on a society's norms, then it follows that one must obey the norms of one's society and to diverge from those norms is to act immorally. This means that if I am a member of a society that believes that racial or sexist practices are morally permissible, then I must accept those practices as morally right. But such a view promotes social conformity and leaves no room for moral reform or improvement in a society. Furthermore, members of the same society may hold different views on practices. In the United States, for example, a variety of moral opinions exists on matters ranging from animal experimentation to abortion. What constitutes right action when social consensus is lacking?
Perhaps the strongest argument against ethical relativism comes from those who assert that universal moral standards can exist even if some moral practices and beliefs vary among cultures. In other words, we can acknowledge cultural differences in moral practices and beliefs and still hold that some of these practices and beliefs are morally wrong. The practice of slavery in pre-Civil war U.S. society or the practice of apartheid in South Africa is wrong despite the beliefs of those societies. The treatment of the Jews in Nazi society is morally reprehensible regardless of the moral beliefs of Nazi society.
For these philosophers, ethics is an inquiry into right and wrong through a critical examination of the reasons underlying practices and beliefs. As a theory for justifying moral practices and beliefs, ethical relativism fails to recognize that some societies have better reasons for holding their views than others.
But even if the theory of ethical relativism is rejected, it must be acknowledged that the concept raises important issues. Ethical relativism reminds us that different societies have different moral beliefs and that our beliefs are deeply influenced by culture. It also encourages us to explore the reasons underlying beliefs that differ from our own, while challenging us to examine our reasons for the beliefs and values we hold.
Term | Definition An sentence that makes a claim; either true or false | |
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Term | Definition the reasoning process expressed by an argument | |
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Term | Definition establishes support for the truth of a claim, contains premises and a conclusion | |
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Term | Definition therefore, consequently, it proves that, thus, in conclusion, suggests that, so, it follows that, implies that, hence, we can infer/conclude that | |
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Term | Definition because, assuming that, as indicated by, since, as shown by, the fact that, given that | |
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Term | Definition Use because to provide reasons for how an event occurred(an already accepted fact) | |
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Term | Definition determines if the information in the premises is accurate, correct, or true | |
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Term | Definition determines the strength with which the premises support the conclusion | |
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Term | Definition the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises, true premises make it impossible for the conclusion to be false | |
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Term | Definition The premises make the conclusion probable , true premises make it improbable for the conclusion to be false | |
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Term | Definition Arguments that are mathematical, geometrical, definitions | |
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Term | Definition Arguments that are analogical, legal, moral, statistical, scientific | |
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Term | Definition Whether a deductive argument is valid or invalid | |
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Term | Definition True premises make it impossible for the conclusion to be false | |
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Term invalid deductive argument | | Definition Even if the premises are true, it is still possible for the conclusion to be false | |
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Term | Definition whether a deductive argument is sound or unsound | |
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Term | Definition separates logic from truth analysis, ex. all beagles are dogs, all dogs are mammals, therefore all beagles are mammals | |
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Term counterexample to a statement | | Definition Provides evidence that a statement is false | |
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Term counterexample to an argument | | Definition shows that true premises do not make the conclusion necessarily true(argument is invalid) | |
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Term strong inductive argument | | Definition true premises make it probably that the conclusion is true | |
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Term | Definition true premises make it improbable that the conclusion is true | |
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Term cogent inductive argument | | Definition the argument is strong and the premises are true | |
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Term uncogent inductive argument | | Definition The argument is weak or has at least one false premise | |
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Term | Definition a single word or group of words that can be the subject of a statement; it can be a common name, a proper name, or even a descriptive phrase | |
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Term | Definition specified by listing the properties or attributes that the term connotes | |
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Term | Definition The class or collection of objects to which the term applies | |
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Term | Definition in a sequence of terms, each term connotes more attributes than the previous term(ex. water, ocean, pacific ocean) | |
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Term | Definition In a sequence of terms, each term denotes a set of objects with fewer members than the previous term(banana, fruit, good, commodity) | |
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Term | Definition descriptions(intension) determine the extension of the term(Cleopatra, queen of Egypt) | |
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Term intensional(Connotative defintion) | | Definition assigns a meaning to a term by listing the properties shared by all the objects denoted by the term | |
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Term | Definition A meaning is assigned to a term by investigating its origin | |
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Term | Definition Defining a term by specifying a measurement procedure(ex. GPA) | |
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Term definitions by genus and difference | | Definition Assigns a meaning to a term(the species) | |
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Term extensive(denotativ) defintion | | Definition Assigns meaning to a term by indicating the class members denoted by the term | |
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Term | Definition Involves demonstrating the term(ex. by pointing to a member of a class) | |
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Term | Definition Assigns meaning to a term by naming the individual members of the class denoted by the term(ex. New England means Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, etc.) | |
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Term | Definition assigns meaning to a term by naming subclasses(species)of the class denoted by the term(coal means lignite, subbituminous, etc.) | |
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Term | Definition introduces a new meaning to a term or symbol; both intensional and extensional | |
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Term | Definition A definition based on the common use of a word, term, or symbol(ex. a dictionary defintion) | |
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Term | Definition Definitions that specify the purpose or use of the objects denoted by the term(ex. a cup holds water) | |
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Term | Definition Definitions that reduce the vagueness and ambiguity of a term by providing a sharp focus, often a technical meaning, for a term | |
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Term | Definition Definitions that assign a meaning to a term by providing an understanding of how the term fits into a general theory | |
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Term | Definition Definition that assigns meaning to a term with the direct purpose of influencing attitudes or opinions | |
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Term | Definition Language that is used to convey information has cognitive meaning | |
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Term | Definition Language that is used to express emotion or feelings has emotive meaning | |
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Term | Definition A judgment that someone or something is good or bad, moral or immoral, or better or worse than another person(or thing) | |
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Term | Definition Occurs when people disagree on a matter that involves facts; may involve different emotional attitudes toward the facts | |
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Term | Definition A dispute that occurs when a vague or ambiguous term results in a linguistic misunderstanding | |
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Term diagram of a simple argument | | Definition A diagram involving an arrow from the premise to the conclusion | |
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Term | Definition A diagram that reveals the occurrence of independent premises; separate arrows link premises to one conclusion | |
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Term | Definition A diagram that reveals the occurance of dependent premises; premises connected by a bracket that is connected by one arrow to the conclusion | |
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Term | Definition A diagram that shows that a conclusion from one argument is a premise in the second argument; shows an arrow from the premise to the conclusion, and then from the conclusion to the next conlcusion | |
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Term | Definition A diagram that shows a single premise supporting independent conclusions; has multiple arrows from a single premise to multiple conclusions | |
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Term | Definition Arguments with missing premises, missing conclusions, or both | |
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Term | Definition Principle that states we should choose the reconstructed argument that gives the benefit of the doubt to the person presenting the arugment | |
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Term | Definition When we speak or write for dramatic or exaggerated effect,using language that may be implying things that are not explicitly said | |
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Term | Definition When a statement is disguised in the form of a question | |
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Term | Definition A conditional statement that is used to imply an argument | |
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Term | Definition A disjunction used to disguise a statement or or an implied argument | |
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Term | Definition Whenever one even ensures that another event will happen | |
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Term | Definition When one thing is essential, mandatory, or required in order for another thing to be realized | |
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Term | Definition A logical error in a deductive argument that occurs in the form or structure of an argument | |
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Term | Definition A mistake in reasoning that occurs in ordinary language, including mistakes due to relevance, unwarranted assumption, and ambiguity or diversion | |
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Term | Definition Fallacies that occur whenever irrelevant premises are offered in support of a conclusion ; often rely on psychological or emotional appeal for their force | |
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Term | Definition "To the person," when a claim is rejected based on alleged character flaws, negative stereotype, or life circumstances of person making the claim | |
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Term | Definition "You too," A type of ad hominem fallacy distinguished by the attempt on one person to avoid the issue at hand by claiming the other person is a hypocrite | |
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Term | Definition The avoidance of objective evidence in favor of an emotional response, defeating a rational investigation of truth | |
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Term | Definition An emotional plea that relies solely on a sense of pity for support | |
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Term | Definition A threat of harmful consequences used to force acceptance of a course of action would otherwise be unacceptable | |
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Term | Definition An argument built on a position claiming either a statement mush be false because it hasn't been proven true, or a statement must be true because it hasn't been proven false | |
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Term | Definition When premises that seem to lead logically to once conclusion are used instead to try and support another conclusion | |
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Term appeal to unqualified authority | | Definition Relies on the opinions of people who have no expertise, training, or knowledge regarding the issue at hand | |
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Term Fallacies of unwarranted assumption | | Definition Arguments that assume the truth of some unproved or questionable claim | |
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Term | Definition Assumes as evidence in the premises the very thing that it attempts to prove in the conclusion | |
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Term | Definition A single question that actually contains multiple, hidden parts | |
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Term | Definition Uses a non-representative sample as support for a statistical claim about an entire population | |
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Term | Definition Rigid application of a generalization; when a generalization is inappropriately applied to the case at hand | |
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Term | Definition Converse accident; a generalization created on the basis of a few instances | |
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Term | Definition Fallacy that claims that, purely for the reason that some argument has been presented often before, it should be disregarded | |
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Term | Definition Fallacy where the origin of a person is cited as a reason to discredit his or her arguments, similar to an ad hominem fallacy | |
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Term | Definition A type of genetic fallacy where the origin of a word, its etymology it employed | |
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Term | Definition A claim that appears to statistically significant, but is not | |
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Term | Definition A fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that only two choices are possible, when in fact others exist | |
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Term | Definition Fallacy that occurs when two choices are asserted, each leading to an unwanted result, with failure to acknowledge that other possibilities exist | |
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Term | Definition Occur when a causal connection is assumed to exist between two events when none actually exist | |
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Term | Definition Results from the accidental or chance connection between two events | |
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Term | Definition Involves a short-term pattern noticed after the fact; means that because something happened after the fact it happened because of the fact | |
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Term | Definition Fallacy that occurs when one event is assumed to cause another when both events are the result of a common cause | |
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Term | Definition A fallacy that occurs when the meanings of terms or phrases are changed within the argument, or when our attention is diverted from the issue at hand | |
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Term | Definition The intentional or unintentional use of different meanings of words or phrases in an argument | |
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Term | Definition Ambiguity that arises when a poorly constructed statement muddles the intended meaning | |
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Term | Definition The mistaken transfer of an attribute of the individual parts of an object to the object as a whole | |
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Term | Definition The mistaken transfer of an attribute of an object as a whole to its individual parts | |
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Term | Definition Occurs when attention is purposely diverted from the issue at hand | |
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Term | Definition Occurs when someone's written or spoken words are taken out of context, purposely distorting the original argument to create a new, weak argument that can be easily refuted(a straw man can easily be knocked down) | |
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Term | Definition Occurs when someone completely ignores an opponent's position and changes the subject, diverting the discussion in a new direction | |
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Term | Definition A claim that a particular human action or object has some degree of importance, worth, or desirability | |
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Term | Definition A claim that a particular human action or object has some degree of importance, worth, or desirability | |
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Term | Definition Value judgments that focus on human actions as good/bad, right/wrong | |
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Term Prescriptive value judgment | | Definition Value judgment that offers advice and recommends what to go | |
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Term Normative value judgments | | Definition Establish standards for correct moral behavior | |
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Term Personal taste value judgment | | Definition Personal opinion on something; subjective | |
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Term | Definition |
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Term Objective value judgments | | Definition Value judgment based on facts about something | |
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Term | Definition Moral value judgments are moral expressions of our attitudes or emotions | |
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Term | Definition Moral value judgments are moral expressions of our attitudes or emotions | |
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Term | Definition A class of moral theories in which the moral value of any human action or behavior is determined exclusively by its outcomes | |
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Term | Definition All humans ought to act in order to maximize the greatest pleasure or happiness for the greatest number of people | |
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Term | Definition All humans ought to act in order to maximize his or her pleasure or happiness | |
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Term | Definition The theory that duty to others is the first and foremost moral consideration | |
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Term Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative | | Definition Absolute and universal moral laws, your actions or behavior toward others should always be such that you would want everyone to act in the same manner | |
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Term | Definition Although there can be general moral rules, we should not apply not apply those rules to every situation | |
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Term | Definition All moral value judgments are determined by an individual person's beliefs or by a society's beliefs toward actions or behavior | |
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Term Naturalistic moral principle | | Definition Since it is natural for humans to desire pleasure and to avoid pain, human behavior ought to be directed at these two ends | |
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Term | Definition A fallacy that concludes from the way that something is and how it should be | |
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Term | Definition Statements to which any rational person would give assent | |
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